{"id":242,"date":"2009-04-28T07:24:08","date_gmt":"2009-04-28T04:24:08","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/eltweekly.com\/more\/?p=242"},"modified":"2009-04-28T07:24:08","modified_gmt":"2009-04-28T04:24:08","slug":"eltweekly-issue18-article-word-structure-by-drpushpa-nagini-sripada","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/eltweekly.humbeestudio.xyz\/?p=242","title":{"rendered":"ELTWeekly Issue#18, Article: Word Structure By Dr.Pushpa Nagini Sripada"},"content":{"rendered":"

WORD STRUCTURE<\/strong><\/p>\n

By Dr.Pushpa Nagini Sripada<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n

Assistant Professor of English <\/strong><\/p>\n

Sathyabama<\/strong> University<\/strong> <\/strong><\/p>\n

Chennai\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

pushpanagini AT yahoo DOT com<\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/p>\n

Abstract:<\/strong> An explanation of how words are formed based on various theories is explained in this article. A clear understanding of the structure of the word would help a teacher of English in focusing on teaching words in the classroom especially in L2 teaching contexts.\u00a0<\/p>\n

1. Word families<\/strong><\/p>\n

Words can be grouped together based on their structure. The following is an example of the word ‘happy’ and other associate word forms of it.<\/p>\n

Happy happily\u00a0 happiness\u00a0 unhappy\u00a0 unhappily<\/p>\n

Unhappier Unhappiest\u00a0\u00a0 happier\u00a0 happiest\u00a0<\/p>\n

2. Inflection and Derivation<\/strong><\/p>\n

A word can be divided into minimal meaningful units called morphemes. For example the word \u2018unfriendliness’, consists of four morphemes -un +friend +li +ness. In this word \u2018friend’ is the \u2018root’ because it cannot be divided further. The grammatical form of it is changed when \u2018ly’ is added to \u2018friend’. Further, \u2018friendly’ is the stem to which -\u2018ness’ (suffix) is added to change into noun.<\/p>\n

3. Affixes<\/strong><\/p>\n

Derivational affixes add meaning to the word derived. For example, if – \u2018er’ is added to \u2018sing’, it is changed into a noun ie \u2018singer’ (one who can sing). Various affixes – prefix and suffixes change the meaning and forms of the words. In English, the spelling of the base word is changed in order to accommodate the ending- e.g\u00a0 ‘y’ is replaced with an ‘i’ in ‘happy’ to ‘happiness’.<\/p>\n

Prefixes are ‘fix’ed at the beginning (‘pre’) of the word. All prefixes change the meaning of the base word. The word ‘happy’ can be changed into its opposite by adding – ‘un’ happy.<\/p>\n

4. Blends<\/strong><\/p>\n

Some words are formed by combining two well- established words\u00a0<\/p>\n

e.g. brunch = a meal that is a combination of breakfast and lunch.<\/p>\n

Heliport: a place where helicopters can land and take off (helicopter + airport)<\/p>\n

Smog: polluted fog (smoke + fog)<\/p>\n

5. Phrasal Combinations with Verbs<\/strong><\/p>\n

Phrasal verbs are compound verbs consisting of a verb, like come or take and a particle (i.e. an adverb or a preposition), like off or up. They are a common or an important part of English, especially in speaking and in informal writing. Often they have an equivalent formal word, for example, make up (phrasal verb) and made up.<\/p>\n

6. Lexical Phrases<\/strong><\/p>\n

Skehan (1992) sees lexical phrases as \u2018ready made elements and chunks’, items that \u2018can be deployed without the need to construct each chunk independently’. Sinclair (1988) talks of \u2018semi’ pre-constructed phrases that constitute a single choice, even though they might appear to be analysed into segments. Some examples are \u2018as a matter of fact’, \u2018at least from a point of view’.\u00a0 Much of the English language consists of lexical phrases. For example the phrases \u2018as a matter of fact’, \u2018as a matter of frequency’ come as single units in discourse.\u00a0 Some phrases do not follow grammatical example, like ‘it’s a matter of opinion’ is not used \u2018as a matter of opinion’ like the other phrases \u2018as a matter of course’, \u2018as a matter of fact’. Some phrases like \u2018by and large’, \u2018spick and span’ are used in fixed pattern. But \u2018as a matter of fact’ allows \u2018as a matter of urgency’, \u2018as a matter of opinion’. Some phrases \u2018would you mind?’ and \u2018have you ever….?’ Allow a range of completions. The following are different types of lexical phrases.<\/p>\n

6.1 Poly Words<\/p>\n

Some phrases like \u2018according to’ and \u2018in my view’ are regarded as poly words. These phrases are made up of more than a single word, but they can be taught as single items since same string of words reoccur without variation.<\/p>\n

6.2 Frames<\/p>\n

According to Sinclair (1990) frames have productive features that would help in making individual choices to construct new sentences.\u00a0<\/p>\n

For example, from+ a+ adjective+ point of view. This frame can be used to limit or focus a statement.<\/p>\n

e.g. Everything looks good from financial point of view.<\/p>\n

That would be a risky decision from a political point of view.<\/p>\n

\u2018Whatever …are necessary’ and \u2018are not… but’ have a frame that allows completion in any number of ways. Phrases and frames are very much like vocabulary items. They are used as units and are slotted into the message like single items.<\/p>\n

6.3 Sentence Stems<\/p>\n

Some lexical phrases constitute full sentences like \u2018How do you do?’ or \u2018How are you?’<\/p>\n

Some enquiries, \u2018Do you think…I…?’ for introducing a request are sometimes referred to as form \/ function composites since the form strongly signals the function it fulfills. Some introductory stems or cleft and pseudo-cleft sentences are introduced by phrases such as \u2018It was …who’ and \u2018X was the one who…’ \u2018what I want \/think do is…’ other phrases which highlight the use of the sentence or the other way it is to be interpreted \u2018It is true that…’ \u2018It is likely that…’,’ that’s why…’ .There are also predictable ways of introducing a research topic like \u2018The aim \/ purpose \/ object of this study is to analyse\/ investigate \/ establish…’etc.<\/p>\n

6.4 Patterns<\/p>\n

Wills (1990) explanation of patterns is worth mentioning here. He explains patterns as sub-class of lexical phrases. In his opinion they are like frames in that they are discontinuous and need to be completed, but, unlike frames, patterns are systematically related to identifiable sets of words as one looks at the pattern using \u2018about’.<\/p>\n

1.\u00a0 Concerning a particular subject: Think about it. I read a book about that recently.<\/p>\n

2.\u00a0 Approximately: It takes about two hours to drive to Chennai. It will cost about a couple of hundreds.<\/p>\n

3.\u00a0 To indicate general spatial orientation: It is late. There is nobody about. We spent the morning just walking about town.<\/p>\n

Each of these meanings is likely to be found in association with predictable sets of words. With the first type (no. 1), one is likely to find verbs, such as \u2018think, forget, talk and read’, nouns denoting items\u00a0 such as ‘a book’, ‘programme’, ‘story’ and an article’, as well as nouns denoting acts of communication such as \u2018advice’, \u2018agreement’ and \u2018opinion’. Adjectives that denote attitudes towards information, states or events, such as \u2018happy’, \u2018pleased’ and \u2018sorry’. With no.2 the numbers are found such as \u2018a hundred’, \u2018a thousand’ or a dozen’ measurements, such as ‘kilometer’, an ‘hour’ and a ‘half’ and a ton’. In no.3 one finds phrases like \u2018hanging about’, \u2018lying about’, ‘waiting about’. Computerised corpus available today on the net allows one to see all the words that collocate with \u2018about’. Most patterns involve the use highly frequent words in the language like \u2018about’ and their relationship with identifiable sets of words. Many patterns with nouns, verbs or adjectives followed by clauses are introduced by \u2018that’ and by \u2018wh’-words.<\/p>\n

6.5 Collocations<\/p>\n

The structure of some words allows them to go together even if it may not be possible to predict this association from the general meaning of the words. For example \u2018strong tea’, \u2018weak tea’, \u2018sour milk’, \u2018drink lemonade\/water’ go together but not \u2018weak cheese’ but \u2018mild cheese’ and \u2018strong cheese’.\u00a0<\/p>\n

6.6 Types of Idioms<\/p>\n

A. Verb- plus – Object<\/p>\n

Table 1 : Idioms<\/p>\n

IdiomMeaningExample<\/p>\n

Ram something down’ someone’s throatImpose one’s ideas \/ views on someoneJust because you are a Marxist you don’t have to ram it down someone’s throat.<\/p>\n

‘Draw the line at something’Refuse to behave in a certain way because you think it is wrongI do use some strong language, but I draw the line at using offensive words.<\/p>\n

‘Have second thoughts’Change your opinion or begin to have doubts about itI am having second thoughts about accepting that job offer.<\/p>\n

B. Prepositional Phrases (preposition plus noun phrase)<\/p>\n

Our boss always keeps us in the dark about changes until the last minute. (uniformed)<\/p>\n

Over hundred villagers were killed in cold blood by the soldiers. (deliberately, without emotion)<\/p>\n

It just happened out of blue. (completely unexpected)<\/p>\n

C. Compounds<\/p>\n

Table 2 : Idioms<\/p>\n

IdiomMeaningExample<\/p>\n

‘A kick in the teeth’An insult or an unfair actNot giving the job is a real a kick in the teeth for her.<\/p>\n

‘A stumbling block’An obstacleThe terrorists are a stumbling block to progress.<\/p>\n

‘Open-ended’Having no planned ending, can be developed in many waysI have no idea to give open-ended commitment. I prefer to have an agreement in writing,\u00a0<\/p>\n

‘State-of-the-art’Most modern, most technically advancedHe has a state of the art computer.<\/p>\n

Source: McCarthy and Felicity O’Dell (2002:194)<\/p>\n

WORD CLASSES<\/strong><\/p>\n

It is often suggested that words are of two basic types \u2018content words’ and \u2018function words’, content words are words with meaning, while function words have a syntactic rather than semantic function. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and ad words are content words; prepositions, conjunctions and determiners are classified as function words. The distinction between content words and function words relates to how specific the word sense is – the more specific, the more \u2018contentful’ the word is. This conclusion is more appropriate in explaining pronouns, which were held to be function words, but now they are included in the class of \u2018noun’.<\/p>\n

References:<\/strong><\/p>\n

Aitchison, J. (1994). ‘Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon, second edition, Oxford, Blackwell.<\/p>\n

Carter, R & Michael McCarthy. (1988). ‘Vocabulary and Language Teaching’: USA, Longman INC.<\/p>\n

McCarthy, M. & Felicity O’ Dell. (1994). ‘English Vocabulary in Use’. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.<\/p>\n

Nation, I.S.P. (1990). ‘Teaching and Learning Vocabulary’. New York, Newburry House.<\/p>\n

O’Dell, F. (1997). ‘Incorporating Vocabulary into the Syllabus’. In Schmitt and MacCarthy eds. (1997). pp. 258-278.<\/p>\n

Willis, Dave. (2002). ‘Rules, Patterns and Words. Grammar and lexis in English Language Teaching’. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

WORD STRUCTURE By Dr.Pushpa Nagini Sripada Assistant Professor of English Sathyabama University Chennai\u00a0 pushpanagini AT yahoo DOT com \u00a0 Abstract: An explanation of how words are formed based on various theories is explained in this article. 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