{"id":426,"date":"2009-09-10T11:31:18","date_gmt":"2009-09-10T08:31:18","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/eltweekly.com\/more\/?p=426"},"modified":"2009-09-10T11:31:18","modified_gmt":"2009-09-10T08:31:18","slug":"eltweekly-issue33-research-paper-individual-differences-in-first-language-acquisition","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/eltweekly.humbeestudio.xyz\/?p=426","title":{"rendered":"ELTWeekly Issue#33, Research Paper: Individual Differences in First Language Acquisition"},"content":{"rendered":"

Individual Differences in First Language Acquisition<\/strong><\/p>\n

by Professor: Dr. Birjandi and\u00a0M-Hashamdar<\/strong>,\u00a0Islamic Azad University, Science & Research Branch<\/p>\n

Abstract<\/strong><\/p>\n

The present paper is intended to search for individual differences in first language<\/p>\n

acquisition. It identifies differences in social, cognitive, cultural, and linguistic dimensions.<\/p>\n

What the researcher has found out so far is that bulk of research on individual differences has been conducted in the realm of second language acquisition and few studies could be detected dealing with this topic in first language acquisition. Therefore, for the purpose of conducting research in this area, the researcher is partly to focus on individual differences in second language acquisition and see whether they can be seen in first language acquisition and partly to try to find the differences which are just influential in first language acquisition regardless of second language acquisition.<\/p>\n

Keywords: <\/strong>motivation, input, intelligence, admiration, exposure, referential strategy, expressive strategy.<\/p>\n

Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n

Background<\/em><\/p>\n

The origins of ID research in psychology go back to the end of the 19th<\/sup> century. Darwin’s\u00a0cousin, Sir Galton, is usually considered to be the first to investigate individual differences\u00a0scientifically. Later, Alfred Binet became interested in individual differences by looking at his\u00a0daughter solving her problems. He coauthored with Victor Henri on \u2018individual psychology’.<\/p>\n

This article was the first systematic description of the goals, procedures, and methods of\u00a0individual differences in psychology. In the process of studying individual differences, Binet\u00a0devised an intelligence scale to separate slow and fast learners in French schools.<\/p>\n

With ongoing developments in the study of personality, motivation, and other cognitive abilities, ID research is still considered a powerful area within psychology. However, it has not\u00a0been that intriguing for researchers of First Language Acquisition. This might be due to different\u00a0reasons. The most important one appears to be due to the fact that nearly all children acquire the\u00a0language sooner or later. That’s why the researchers preferred not to put much emphasis on\u00a0individual differences in FLA.<\/p>\n

It was once thought that all children acquire language in pretty much the same way (Lenneberg, 1964). Although some children develop a little quicker than others, the stages of\u00a0development and strategies used to acquire language are nearly similar. Research studies over 30\u00a0years have showed evidence for ID in language styles and strategies.<\/p>\n

Nelson (1973) has mentioned two different strategies for acquiring first language; (1)\u00a0referential strategy, and (2) expressive strategy. She asserts that most children approach language\u00a0using a referential strategy.<\/em> That is, they refer to aspects of their immediate environment. In\u00a0contrast, some children use expressive strategy <\/em>in which they emphasize social interaction.<\/p>\n

Referential children seem to regard language as a process of naming objects whereas\u00a0expressive children are believed to have more diverse vocabularies such as social routines which\u00a0are learnt holistically as units. They can also utter whole sentences rather than putting words\u00a0together one by one and then making sentences.<\/p>\n

The differences might have linguistic, social, cognitive, and cultural dimensions.<\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

Linguistic Dimension<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/strong>Languages differ in what is easier and what harder to learn and master. Slobin (1985)\u00a0distinguished two sources of complexity for learning: conceptual and formal complexity.<\/p>\n

Conceptual complexity belongs to the complexity of the ideas being expressed in language.\u00a0Formal complexity refers to the forms different concepts get. For example, the concept of plural\u00a0may take different forms in different languages. In English, it takes -s ending for plural and in\u00a0other languages the other forms. Although no one language appears to be easier to learn and\u00a0master, there are some forms which are easier to learn than in other languages. Children growing\u00a0up in that language find that aspect of language easier and therefore learn it much sooner than\u00a0children of other languages the same form.<\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

Social Dimensions<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

Exposure <\/em><\/p>\n

Many scholars believe that the way children learn language follows a specific pattern and is\u00a0inherently systematic in its nature. It is definite that children must be exposed to some language\u00a0in order to start acquisition, but how that exposure and later interaction occur is to some extent\u00a0variable. The evidence made by feral children <\/em>(those who have grown up in the wild) and\u00a0isolated children <\/em>(those who have grown up with extremely limited human contact) proved the\u00a0importance of language input and child exposure to language. Exposure to language is out of the control of the child whereas the interaction made in following months and years of childhood is\u00a0determined more or less by the child and the caretaker. His interest in experiencing and\u00a0interaction with others give him an active role in the process of language acquisition. Clark\u00a0(2003) stated that a stimulating and rich linguistic environment will support language\u00a0development in children. How often and how well caregiver communicate with the child is a\u00a0strong indicator of how rapidly children expand their language learning. McLaughlin (1984)\u00a0asserted that engaging the children and encouraging them to express themselves interactively is\u00a0an effective way to build language experience.<\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

It seems that the amount and quality of the exposure to language experienced by the children \u00a0of last generation is considerably different from children of new generation. This generation of\u00a0children is experiencing more exposure to language. In past the source of exposure to language\u00a0was limited to parents and caregivers’ language. That is, children could not experience a variety\u00a0of vocabulary and grammar in the language used by people around. It is believed that each\u00a0individual has got his or her style of speech. When the language exposure is experienced from a\u00a0limited number of people around, then the language acquired cannot have variety. Child in this\u00a0situation might acquire the language but the quality and even the rate of learning and mastering\u00a0the language might be affected.<\/p>\n

Goldfield (1987) found that children’s lexical preferences were influenced by both child and\u00a0caregiver variables. He saw that children who more often used objects to elicit maternal attention\u00a0and whose mothers more often labeled and described toys and surrounding objects were more\u00a0likely to use referential language.<\/p>\n

Language acquisition takes place while the child is involved in interaction and conversation\u00a0with caregivers. Conversation demands that its participants attend to each other and to whatever\u00a0is being talked about. Clark (2003) argues that both joint attention and the updating of common\u00a0ground play a role in acquisition. By common ground, <\/em>she means what others know at each point\u00a0in the conversation. Through this language socialization, children learn the behaviors that are\u00a0culturally and linguistically appropriate in their community. Interaction with a child by a\u00a0caregiver can have two patterns: child-centered and situation-centered (Park & King, 2003).<\/p>\n

In child-centered context, caretakers consider children as potential conversational partner.\u00a0That’s why in these families children are involved in daily conversation of the family; sometimes\u00a0as short as a greeting or question and answer from birth. In this context, family members are to\u00a0lower their speech pace, and even use simple utterances in their interaction with the child.<\/p>\n

In situation-centered context, caregivers tend not to simplify their speech in interaction with\u00a0the child. Children are expected to understand adult-like utterances. In these families, children\u00a0have to build up their own language construction, make themselves understood, and interpret\u00a0other’s responses.<\/p>\n

The social aspect of language acquisition was also emphasized by Vygotsky. He regarded\u00a0language as a critical bridge between the socio-cultural world and individual mental functioning.<\/p>\n

He viewed the acquisition of language as the most significant milestone in children’s cognitive\u00a0development.<\/p>\n

Motivation or admiration?<\/em><\/p>\n

It is generally believed that motivation plays an important role in language learning. Wood (1998) believes that the child’s view of himself as a social being, as an object of other people’s\u00a0regard, can be a crucial determinant of his motivation. And if you accept this, then you come up\u00a0with thenotion that motivation and de-motivation for learning are not simply manifestations of\u00a0individual cognition but they are of social ones. Heckhausen (1982) argues that young children\u00a0do not entertain a very clear distinction between effort <\/em>and ability.<\/em> The fact that some children do\u00a0things faster than others does not seem to overly concern them. In this regard, what is prominent\u00a0and important to be considered is the fact that in FLA the child is too young to understand the\u00a0notion of motivation. What stimulates or persuades the child to acquire the language seems to be\u00a0due to the admiration he receives from parents or caregivers when he utters a word or phrase.<\/p>\n

This admiration is sometimes accompanied with a prize given by others to the child. It might\u00a0even be the smile of satisfaction the caretaker gives when the child opens his mouth and\u00a0articulates the first sounds and words.<\/p>\n

Cognitive Dimension<\/strong><\/p>\n

There has been a long debate regarding the question whether language acquisition is a process\u00a0associated with a cognitive system derived from general human intelligence or whether it is a\u00a0genetically determined system. The supporters of each idea give their own reasons for their\u00a0support. The fact that the attempts to teach language to other primates failed emphasizes once\u00a0again that the human brain seems to be suited for the acquisition of language in a way in which\u00a0no other species can be. However, there is evidence that language is independent of general\u00a0cognitive abilities and that it is an endowment to human beings.<\/p>\n

Performance factors<\/em><\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

Lust (2006) states that children’s behavior with language is also affected by a number of\u00a0performance factors such as memory and ability to deal with length of linguistic utterances. He\u00a0believes that the relation between these factors and linguistic knowledge is complex. No one\u00a0denies the role of memory in the cognitive domain of individual differences. Some children have\u00a0good memory and some not as well as the others. However, memory studies should be under the\u00a0title of intelligence. That’s why it is discussed under that topic.<\/p>\n

Intelligence<\/em><\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

The importance of intelligence as a cognitive entity can never be ignored in studying issues\u00a0related to mental activities. Nevertheless, its role in language acquisition is not fully appreciated\u00a0by all researchers. Some consider either studies of individuals, who were intellectually\u00a0handicapped but still show normal mastery of language or individuals whose cognitive abilities\u00a0are normal but whose speech is impaired.<\/p>\n

The children with Spina Bifida, a malformation of the vertebrae that leaves the spinal cord\u00a0unprotected, and children suffering from Williams Syndrome show that language development\u00a0does not depend on fully functioning general intelligence.<\/p>\n

On the other hand, some scholars such as Gardner believe in linguistic intelligence <\/em>as one of\u00a0the eight intelligences in human beings. Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences\u00a0which is based on eight different intelligences such as mathematical, interpersonal, intrapersonal,\u00a0visual, musical, and bodily intelligences. If we accept that linguistic intelligence exists, then we\u00a0have to accept that some children are born with high level of linguistic intelligence and some\u00a0with low linguistic intelligence. Therefore, those with high level can acquire the language much\u00a0easier and better, and those with low level of linguistic intelligence can acquire language slower\u00a0and with difficulty.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

Cultural Dimension<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

Gender and birth order<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Throughout the last century psychologists have used a number of tests to see if there is any\u00a0difference in the performance of males and females in different cognitive tasks. Language\u00a0acquisition is considered to be a cognitive process and this made some psychologists search for\u00a0the relationship between language acquisition and gender differences.<\/p>\n

Teale (1996) claimed that families spend substantially more time in literacy-related activities\u00a0with girls than with boys. However, this can be culture-bound as well. The common conclusion\u00a0has been that females perform much better than males in a number of language skills (Kimura,\u00a0993). In tasks such as listing words that all begin with the same\u00a0letter or which are all related semantically.<\/p>\n

There is a number of research studies conducted to explain why sex differences exist in first\u00a0language performance. Cattell (2000) stated that some psychologists believe that males are more\u00a0strongly lateralized than females, both for language and spatial relationships. Those skills are\u00a0processed by both hemispheres in females. This claim comes from the idea that the splenum (part\u00a0of corpus callosum) is larger in females than males.<\/p>\n

The birth order is the other criterion which was emphasized by some researchers. Hoff-Ginsberg (1998) identified first-born versus later-born children in high socioeconomic status\u00a0(SES) versus middle SES families and studied the language addressed to them and their rates of\u00a0language development. He found out that first-born children were more advanced in lexical and\u00a0grammatical development than later-born children. However, later-born children were more\u00a0developed in conversational skills. Wells (1985) stated that adults talk more to first-born than to\u00a0later-born children, and high SES adults talk more to their children than middle SES adults do.<\/p>\n

Hart & Risley (1995) examined the number of people living in a house and the amount of\u00a0parent-to-child speech. They found out that adults in crowded homes spoke to their children in\u00a0simpler, less sophisticated ways than adults in less crowded homes. And parents in the more\u00a0crowded settings were less responsive verbally to their children.<\/p>\n

Family background<\/em><\/p>\n

The effect of cultural and ethnic diversity on first language acquisition can easily be detected\u00a0when children start speaking their mother tongue with the friends. Children from low-income\u00a0backgrounds lag behind their peers in language skills from early on, and have been shown to\u00a0develop vocabularies up to four times more slowly than their peers from more economically\u00a0advantaged backgrounds (Feldman, 2000).<\/p>\n

Tamis-Lemonda and Rodriguez (2008) found out that three aspects of parenting have been\u00a0highlighted as central to children’s early language and learning: (1) the frequency of children’s\u00a0participation in routine learning activities such as shared book reading and storytelling; (2) the\u00a0quality of caregiver-child engagements; and (3) the provision of age-appropriate learning\u00a0materials.<\/p>\n

However, it seems that these aspects of parenting are highly dependent on the parents’\u00a0educational status, parent’s age, and ethnicity. It cannot be ignored that parents who are highly\u00a0educated spend more time with their babies in order to help and scaffold their children’s\u00a0language learning. Highly-educated parents also use more vocabulary in their conversation and\u00a0this diversity in word usage gives the child more opportunity to be exposed with more words.<\/p>\n

That’s why the children in these families use more elaborate words in their conversation with the\u00a0teachers and peers when they enter schools. On the other hand, parental education can affect on\u00a0the household income. Parents living in poverty have children who are at risk for cognitive,\u00a0academic, and social-emotional problems (McLoyd, 1998).<\/p>\n

The other important aspect of parenting is the ethnic and cultural differences in families.<\/p>\n

Evens (1999) stated that Hispanic and African American mothers are, on average, less likely to\u00a0read their children than white non-Hispanic mothers and Spanish-speaking Hispanic families\u00a0have fewer children’s books available in the home than their non-Hispanic counterparts.<\/p>\n

The parent’s age is a determinant in the process of language acquisition. For example,\u00a0compared to older mothers, teen mothers display lower levels of verbal stimulation and\u00a0involvement, higher levels of intrusiveness, and material speech that is less varied and complex\u00a0(Whiteside-Mansell & Pope, 1996).<\/p>\n

Conclusion<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/strong>There exists irrefutable evidence for the individual differences in First Language Acquisition.\u00a0Children who display delays in language acquisition, those who never catch the standard and\u00a0normal level of language proficiency, stammering and stuttering of some children, <\/strong>eloquence in\u00a0speech of some children and lack of it in others, politeness in speech of some infants and lack of\u00a0it in others, and some more reasons all show that there should be individual differences.<\/p>\n

However, most of these variables cannot be easily measured. That’s why many researchers\u00a0prefer not to search or talk about it. These researchers would rather search for individual\u00a0differences in Second Language Acquisition.<\/p>\n

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References<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/strong><\/p>\n

Cattell, R. (2000). Children’s language<\/em>. London: Biddles Ltd.<\/p>\n

Clark, B. A. (2000). First and second language acquisition in early children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<\/p>\n

Clark, E.V. (2003). First language acquisition.<\/em> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<\/p>\n

Evans, G. (1999). Parental language and verbal responsiveness to children in crowded homes. Developmental Psychology.<\/em>35: 1020-1023.<\/p>\n

Feldman, H. (2000). Child development. MacArthur.<\/p>\n

Hart, B. & Risley, T. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore, MD: H. Paul Brookes.<\/p>\n

Hoff-Ginsberg, E. (1998). The relation of birth order and socioeconomic status to children’s language experience and language development. Applied psycholinguistics 19, 603-629.<\/p>\n

Kimura, D. (1992). Sex differences in the brain. Scientific American:<\/em> 119-125.<\/p>\n

Lust, B. (2006). Child Language. <\/em>Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<\/p>\n

McLoyd, V. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychology.<\/em> 53: 185-204.<\/p>\n

Park, E. & King, K. (2003). Cultural diversity and language socialization in the early years. Eric digest.<\/em> Edo-fl-03-13.<\/p>\n

Pinker, S. (1998). Language acquisition. Language.<\/em> Cambridge, MA: MIT press.<\/p>\n

Slobin, D. (1985). The cross linguistic study of language acquisition,<\/em> vol.2. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<\/p>\n

Teale, W. (1996). Home background and young children’s literacy development. Emergent literacy. <\/em>173-206.<\/p>\n

Wells, G. (1985). Language development in the pre-school years. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<\/p>\n

Whiteside-Mansell, L. (1996). Patterns of parenting behavior in young mothers. Family Relations.<\/em> 45: 273-281.<\/p>\n

Wood, D. (1998). How children think and learn.<\/em> Oxford: Blackwell.<\/p>\n

**ELTWeekly<\/strong> would like to thank\u00a0Dr. Birjandi and\u00a0M-Hashamdar<\/strong> for contributing this research paper.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Individual Differences in First Language Acquisition by Professor: Dr. Birjandi and\u00a0M-Hashamdar,\u00a0Islamic Azad University, Science & Research Branch Abstract The present paper is intended to search for individual differences in first language acquisition. It identifies differences in social, cognitive, cultural, and linguistic dimensions. What the researcher has found out so far is that bulk of research 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